Aspirin

Aspirin Market Outlook

The global aspirin market size is projected to reach approximately USD 1.8 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of around 3.5% during the forecast period of 2025-2035. This growth is primarily driven by the widespread use of aspirin for pain relief, fever reduction, and its established role in cardiovascular protection. Additionally, the increasing incidence of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer contributes to the rising demand for aspirin as a preventive measure. The growing awareness among consumers regarding the therapeutic benefits of aspirin, along with the expansion of distribution channels, including online platforms, adds to the market's momentum. Furthermore, innovative formulations and variants, such as low-dose and enteric-coated aspirin, cater to diverse consumer needs, enhancing market growth.

Growth Factor of the Market

The growth of the aspirin market is significantly influenced by various factors that cater to both consumer healthcare needs and the pharmaceutical industry. The increasing prevalence of lifestyle-related diseases, coupled with an aging population, drives the demand for over-the-counter medications like aspirin. As more individuals seek effective solutions for pain management, fever reduction, and cardiovascular health, aspirin becomes a frontline medication widely recommended by healthcare professionals. Furthermore, research highlighting the potential of aspirin in cancer prevention and its anti-inflammatory properties is leading to greater acceptance and usage in both clinical and home settings. The competitive landscape is also evolving with advancements in drug formulation technologies, resulting in improved product offerings that attract a broader customer base. Additionally, the accessibility of aspirin through various distribution channels, including pharmacies, drug stores, and online retailers, promotes convenience and boosts sales.

Key Highlights of the Market

• The global aspirin market is anticipated to grow at a CAGR of 3.5% from 2025 to 2035.
• Increasing utilization of aspirin in chronic disease management is a major growth driver.
• The rise of online retail channels is enhancing product accessibility to consumers.
• Innovative formulations like buffered and effervescent aspirin are gaining popularity.
• Geographical expansion of pharmaceutical companies is fostering market growth across regions.

By Product Type

Regular Aspirin:

Regular aspirin, widely known for its effectiveness in pain relief and anti-inflammatory applications, forms a significant part of the market. This type is often used to manage mild to moderate pain, including headaches, muscle aches, and arthritis symptoms. Its affordability and availability as an over-the-counter medication have contributed to its sustained demand. The ability of regular aspirin to inhibit the production of certain chemicals in the body that cause inflammation further underlines its usefulness in pain management. Furthermore, its historical establishment as a staple in households enhances its consumption across various demographics, solidifying its position in the market.

Low-Dose Aspirin:

Low-dose aspirin has gained prominence largely due to its role in cardiovascular disease prevention. Prescribed for individuals at risk of heart attacks or strokes, low-dose aspirin works by inhibiting platelet aggregation, thus preventing blood clots. The increased focus on preventive healthcare and awareness surrounding heart health has driven significant growth in this segment. Medical professionals often recommend this formulation as a safe and effective means to reduce cardiovascular risk, and ongoing research continues to validate its efficacy. The rise in preventive health screenings and lifestyle changes aimed at reducing heart disease risk have contributed to the rise in demand for low-dose aspirin.

Enteric-Coated Aspirin:

Enteric-coated aspirin is designed to dissolve in the intestines rather than the stomach, thereby minimizing gastrointestinal side effects, which is a common concern among aspirin users. This formulation has become increasingly important for patients who require long-term aspirin therapy but are susceptible to stomach irritation. The growing awareness of gastrointestinal safety profiles in medications has led to an uptick in the preference for enteric-coated aspirin among consumers and healthcare providers alike. Enteric-coated products are particularly appealing to the elderly population, who often suffer from gastrointestinal issues, thus boosting their adoption in the market.

Buffered Aspirin:

Buffered aspirin combines the effectiveness of aspirin with buffering agents that help to neutralize stomach acidity, thereby reducing gastrointestinal discomfort. This formulation is particularly favored by patients who experience sensitivity to standard aspirin. The demand for buffered aspirin is rising as consumers become more informed about medication side effects and seek solutions that enhance comfort without compromising efficacy. The appeal of buffered aspirin is growing in both over-the-counter and prescription markets, especially among those undergoing long-term aspirin therapy for conditions such as arthritis or cardiovascular issues. As healthcare providers emphasize the importance of patient comfort, buffered aspirin is likely to see increased market penetration.

Effervescent Aspirin:

Effervescent aspirin is emerging as a popular alternative due to its rapid dissolution in water, delivering quicker relief from pain and discomfort. The unique formulation enhances absorption and may appeal to individuals who find swallowing traditional tablets challenging. This segment has seen growth due to the increasing demand for innovative and user-friendly medication delivery forms. The effervescent dosage form is particularly popular among younger populations, who value convenience and fast action. As manufacturers focus on product diversification to cater to evolving consumer preferences, the effervescent aspirin segment is expected to expand further in the coming years.

By Application

Pain Relief:

Pain relief is one of the primary applications of aspirin and continues to be a significant driver of market demand. Aspirin is widely recognized for its effectiveness in alleviating various types of pain, including headaches, toothaches, menstrual cramps, and muscular pain. It works by blocking the production of certain chemicals in the body that cause pain and inflammation. With the increasing prevalence of chronic pain conditions, there is a growing need for effective analgesics, and aspirin remains a go-to option for many consumers. The ease of access to over-the-counter aspirin further enhances its appeal in the pain relief category, making it a staple in first-aid kits and households around the world.

Fever Reduction:

Aspirin is also extensively used for fever reduction, showcasing its importance in treating common ailments such as colds and flu. The antipyretic properties of aspirin allow it to effectively lower elevated body temperatures, providing relief during illness. The demand for fever-reducing medications is especially high during flu seasons or pandemics, where widespread illness leads to increased consumption of over-the-counter medications. As parents and caregivers seek effective solutions to manage fever in children and adults, the role of aspirin in this application remains crucial. This segment is likely to continue driving market growth, particularly in regions with high incidences of viral infections.

Anti-inflammatory:

The anti-inflammatory application of aspirin is critical, particularly in managing conditions such as arthritis and other inflammatory disorders. Aspirin's ability to reduce inflammation and provide pain relief makes it a valuable treatment option for patients suffering from chronic inflammatory conditions. The rising prevalence of such diseases has led to an increased focus on anti-inflammatory treatments, further propelling the demand for aspirin. Healthcare professionals often prescribe aspirin as part of a broader therapeutic regimen, reinforcing its status as a go-to anti-inflammatory drug. With ongoing research exploring its potential benefits in various inflammatory conditions, this segment is expected to witness continued growth.

Cardiovascular Protection:

Aspirin's role in cardiovascular protection is one of its most significant applications, particularly for individuals at risk of heart attacks or strokes. Low-dose aspirin therapy is widely recommended by healthcare providers due to its anti-platelet properties, which help prevent blood clot formation. As awareness of cardiovascular health rises globally, more individuals are adopting aspirin as a preventive measure. The increasing incidence of cardiovascular diseases, particularly in aging populations, heightens the need for effective preventive strategies, thus driving market demand. The long-standing endorsement of low-dose aspirin by health organizations and cardiologists reinforces its essential role in cardiovascular protection.

Cancer Prevention:

Recent studies have suggested that aspirin may play a role in cancer prevention, particularly colorectal cancer. This emerging application has garnered significant attention from both the medical community and the public. Research indicating that regular aspirin use may lower the risk of certain cancers has sparked interest in its potential as a preventive measure. As more individuals seek to incorporate preventive health strategies into their lifestyles, the cancer prevention application of aspirin is likely to boost its market presence. Ongoing clinical trials further exploring aspirin's role in cancer prevention could lead to increased recommendations from healthcare professionals, enhancing its significance in this application area.

By Distribution Channel

Pharmacies:

Pharmacies are one of the primary distribution channels for aspirin, offering both over-the-counter and prescription options to consumers. The presence of licensed pharmacists allows for personalized advice on medication usage, which fosters consumer trust and encourages purchases. Pharmacies often serve as the first point of contact for individuals seeking pain relief or fever management solutions, highlighting their importance in the distribution network. The convenience of purchasing aspirin from local pharmacies ensures a steady flow of customers, maintaining a robust market presence. Additionally, pharmacies frequently run promotions and discounts, further incentivizing consumers to choose aspirin as their preferred analgesic treatment.

Hospitals:

Hospitals play a crucial role in the distribution of aspirin, particularly in managing acute conditions and during surgical procedures. Aspirin is often administered to patients as part of post-operative care to prevent blood clot formation and reduce the risk of complications. The hospital setting provides a controlled environment for administering medications, ensuring that patients receive appropriate dosages and monitoring for potential side effects. The growing emphasis on preventive healthcare within hospitals has led to increased aspirin usage in both inpatient and outpatient settings. As healthcare institutions focus on patient safety and effective treatment, the significance of aspirin distribution within hospitals will likely continue to grow.

Online Retailers:

The rise of e-commerce has transformed the way consumers access medications, including aspirin. Online retailers offer the convenience of home delivery and often provide a wider range of aspirin formulations compared to traditional brick-and-mortar stores. The growing trend of purchasing healthcare products online has been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, as consumers seek to minimize physical contact. Online platforms facilitate price comparisons and customer reviews, empowering consumers to make informed choices. As technology continues to advance, online sales of aspirin are expected to expand further, catering to the increasing demand for convenient and accessible healthcare solutions.

Drug Stores:

Drug stores serve as an essential distribution channel for aspirin, providing a wide variety of over-the-counter medications. These stores often stock different formulations, including regular, buffered, and effervescent aspirin, catering to diverse consumer preferences. The accessibility of drug stores contributes significantly to aspirin's consumption, as these establishments are typically located in convenient areas. Additionally, drug stores often engage in promotional activities that highlight aspirin's benefits, encouraging consumers to choose their products. The steady growth of drug store chains and their expansion into suburban and rural areas enhances the visibility and availability of aspirin products.

Others:

Other distribution channels for aspirin include supermarkets, convenience stores, and health and wellness shops. These outlets contribute to the overall accessibility of aspirin, offering consumers varied options for procurement. The inclusion of aspirin in supermarkets allows for impulse purchases, while convenience stores cater to those in need of quick relief during non-pharmacy hours. Health and wellness shops may also provide specialized formulations of aspirin, appealing to health-conscious consumers. As consumer preferences evolve and the importance of convenience continues to rise, these additional distribution channels will play an increasingly critical role in the aspirin market.

By Ingredient Type

Acetylsalicylic Acid:

Acetylsalicylic acid serves as the primary active ingredient in aspirin, providing its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. The efficacy of acetylsalicylic acid in reducing pain and inflammation has been well-established through extensive research, making it the foundational component of all aspirin formulations. As the demand for pain relief solutions continues to grow, acetylsalicylic acid remains in high demand, driving the production of various aspirin products. The purity and quality of this ingredient are crucial for ensuring the effectiveness and safety of aspirin, leading manufacturers to invest in high-quality sourcing and production processes. Ongoing research into the potential therapeutic benefits of acetylsalicylic acid further solidifies its importance in the market.

Inactive Ingredients:

Inactive ingredients play a vital role in the formulation of aspirin products, contributing to factors such as stability, absorption, and overall patient compliance. These ingredients can include fillers, binders, and coating agents that enhance the delivery and efficacy of acetylsalicylic acid. The choice of inactive ingredients is influenced by consumer preferences for specific formulations, such as enteric-coated or buffered aspirin, which are designed to minimize gastrointestinal side effects. As the market evolves, manufacturers are increasingly focusing on developing formulations that cater to consumer sensitivities, leading to a growing demand for aspirin products with tailored inactive ingredients. The importance of these components is often overlooked, yet they are integral to the success of various aspirin formulations in the competitive market landscape.

By Region

North America dominates the aspirin market, accounting for approximately 45% of the global value. This significant share is attributed to the high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, the well-established healthcare infrastructure, and the growing awareness of preventive health measures among the population. The region's aging demographic also contributes to the increasing consumption of aspirin, particularly low-dose variants recommended for heart health. Furthermore, the strong presence of pharmaceutical companies and continuous research into aspirin's benefits solidify North America's leading position in the market. Analysts predict a steady CAGR of 3.2% in this region throughout the forecast period as consumer reliance on aspirin for both pain relief and preventive healthcare continues to grow.

Europe holds a substantial share of the aspirin market, contributing approximately 30% to the overall revenue. The region benefits from a robust healthcare system and a proactive approach to preventive medicine, with aspirin frequently recommended for cardiovascular protection and pain relief. Countries such as Germany and the UK lead in aspirin consumption, driven by public health initiatives promoting heart health awareness. Additionally, the growth of online retail channels in Europe has increased the accessibility of aspirin products to consumers. As the population ages and the incidence of chronic diseases rises, the European aspirin market is expected to witness a CAGR of 3.0% during the forecast period, ensuring its continued relevance in the pharmaceutical landscape.

Opportunities

The aspirin market presents numerous opportunities for growth, particularly in the realm of preventive healthcare. As awareness of the importance of health maintenance continues to grow, consumers are increasingly looking for effective solutions to manage chronic conditions and reduce their risk of disease. This trend is particularly pronounced in aging populations, where the demand for preventive medications like aspirin is expected to rise. Pharmaceutical companies have the opportunity to invest in research and development to explore new formulations or delivery methods that enhance the efficacy and safety of aspirin. By focusing on innovative product development, manufacturers can tap into emerging consumer needs and preferences, expanding their market reach and driving sales growth.

Additionally, the rise of telemedicine and digital health technologies presents an opportunity for aspirin manufacturers to engage with consumers through online platforms. As more individuals seek healthcare solutions via digital channels, companies can leverage e-commerce to promote their products effectively. Building strong online marketing strategies and partnerships with healthcare professionals can help educate consumers about the benefits of aspirin in pain management and disease prevention. Furthermore, international markets, particularly in Asia Pacific and Latin America, show promising growth potential due to expanding healthcare infrastructure and increasing health awareness, allowing companies to explore new revenue avenues in these regions.

Threats

The aspirin market faces several threats that could potentially hinder its growth trajectory. One significant concern is the increasing competition from alternative pain relief medications, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and newer analgesics that may offer fewer side effects. As patients and healthcare providers explore various treatment options, the market share of aspirin may suffer. Moreover, the advent of prescription medications that target specific conditions more effectively may also divert consumers from traditional aspirin products. Additionally, the rising trend of holistic and natural pain management solutions may further complicate aspirin's position in the pharmaceutical landscape. Companies must remain vigilant and adapt to these shifts in consumer preferences to maintain their competitive edge.

Another critical concern lies in the potential adverse effects associated with aspirin use, particularly gastrointestinal bleeding and allergic reactions. Public awareness of these risks can deter consumers from using aspirin as a first-line treatment. Regulatory changes and increased scrutiny regarding the safety of over-the-counter medications may also pose challenges for aspirin manufacturers. Ensuring transparency about potential side effects and providing clear guidance on safe usage will be essential in addressing consumer concerns and maintaining trust in aspirin products.

Competitor Outlook

• Bayer AG
• GlaxoSmithKline plc
• Pfizer Inc.
• Sanofi S.A.
• Novartis AG
• Johnson & Johnson
• Roche Holding AG
• Merck & Co., Inc.
• Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
• AbbVie Inc.
• Amgen Inc.
• Hikma Pharmaceuticals PLC
• Endo International plc
• Alpharma LLC
• Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

The competitive landscape of the aspirin market is characterized by the presence of several key players that dominate the industry through their extensive product offerings and strong brand recognition. Bayer AG stands out as a historical leader in the aspirin market, credited with the original development of acetylsalicylic acid over a century ago. The company's diverse range of aspirin products, including low-dose and enteric-coated variants, cater to various consumer needs. Bayer's commitment to innovation and quality continues to strengthen its market position, allowing it to retain a significant share of the global aspirin market.

GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer also play a crucial role in the aspirin market, leveraging their extensive research capabilities and global reach to introduce a wide array of aspirin formulations. These companies invest heavily in marketing and consumer education, reinforcing the therapeutic benefits of aspirin across various applications, including cardiovascular health and pain management. Their presence across multiple distribution channels ensures that aspirin remains accessible to consumers worldwide, contributing to their competitive advantage in the market.

As the aspirin market evolves, companies like Sanofi and Novartis are focusing on expanding their product portfolios to include innovative formulations that cater to changing consumer preferences. These firms are committed to research and development to explore novel applications of aspirin, such as its implications in cancer prevention and chronic disease management. By fostering collaborations with healthcare professionals and investing in clinical studies, these companies aim to enhance the credibility of their products and drive sales growth.

• 1 Appendix

  • 1.1 List of Tables
  • 1.2 List of Figures

• 2 Introduction

  • 2.1 Market Definition
  • 2.2 Scope of the Report
  • 2.3 Study Assumptions
  • 2.4 Base Currency & Forecast Periods

• 3 Market Dynamics

  • 3.1 Market Growth Factors
  • 3.2 Economic & Global Events
  • 3.3 Innovation Trends
  • 3.4 Supply Chain Analysis

• 4 Consumer Behavior

  • 4.1 Market Trends
  • 4.2 Pricing Analysis
  • 4.3 Buyer Insights

• 5 Key Player Profiles

  • 5.1 Bayer AG
    • 5.1.1 Business Overview
    • 5.1.2 Products & Services
    • 5.1.3 Financials
    • 5.1.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.1.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.2 Amgen Inc.
    • 5.2.1 Business Overview
    • 5.2.2 Products & Services
    • 5.2.3 Financials
    • 5.2.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.2.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.3 AbbVie Inc.
    • 5.3.1 Business Overview
    • 5.3.2 Products & Services
    • 5.3.3 Financials
    • 5.3.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.3.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.4 Novartis AG
    • 5.4.1 Business Overview
    • 5.4.2 Products & Services
    • 5.4.3 Financials
    • 5.4.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.4.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.5 Pfizer Inc.
    • 5.5.1 Business Overview
    • 5.5.2 Products & Services
    • 5.5.3 Financials
    • 5.5.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.5.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.6 Sanofi S.A.
    • 5.6.1 Business Overview
    • 5.6.2 Products & Services
    • 5.6.3 Financials
    • 5.6.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.6.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.7 Alpharma LLC
    • 5.7.1 Business Overview
    • 5.7.2 Products & Services
    • 5.7.3 Financials
    • 5.7.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.7.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.8 Roche Holding AG
    • 5.8.1 Business Overview
    • 5.8.2 Products & Services
    • 5.8.3 Financials
    • 5.8.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.8.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.9 Johnson & Johnson
    • 5.9.1 Business Overview
    • 5.9.2 Products & Services
    • 5.9.3 Financials
    • 5.9.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.9.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.10 Merck & Co., Inc.
    • 5.10.1 Business Overview
    • 5.10.2 Products & Services
    • 5.10.3 Financials
    • 5.10.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.10.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.11 GlaxoSmithKline plc
    • 5.11.1 Business Overview
    • 5.11.2 Products & Services
    • 5.11.3 Financials
    • 5.11.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.11.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.12 Endo International plc
    • 5.12.1 Business Overview
    • 5.12.2 Products & Services
    • 5.12.3 Financials
    • 5.12.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.12.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.13 Hikma Pharmaceuticals PLC
    • 5.13.1 Business Overview
    • 5.13.2 Products & Services
    • 5.13.3 Financials
    • 5.13.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.13.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.14 Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
    • 5.14.1 Business Overview
    • 5.14.2 Products & Services
    • 5.14.3 Financials
    • 5.14.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.14.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.15 Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
    • 5.15.1 Business Overview
    • 5.15.2 Products & Services
    • 5.15.3 Financials
    • 5.15.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.15.5 SWOT Analysis

• 6 Market Segmentation

  • 6.1 Aspirin Market, By Application
    • 6.1.1 Pain Relief
    • 6.1.2 Fever Reduction
    • 6.1.3 Anti-inflammatory
    • 6.1.4 Cardiovascular Protection
    • 6.1.5 Cancer Prevention
  • 6.2 Aspirin Market, By Product Type
    • 6.2.1 Regular Aspirin
    • 6.2.2 Low-Dose Aspirin
    • 6.2.3 Enteric-Coated Aspirin
    • 6.2.4 Buffered Aspirin
    • 6.2.5 Effervescent Aspirin
  • 6.3 Aspirin Market, By Ingredient Type
    • 6.3.1 Acetylsalicylic Acid
    • 6.3.2 Inactive Ingredients
  • 6.4 Aspirin Market, By Distribution Channel
    • 6.4.1 Pharmacies
    • 6.4.2 Hospitals
    • 6.4.3 Online Retailers
    • 6.4.4 Drug Stores
    • 6.4.5 Others

• 7 Competitive Analysis

  • 7.1 Key Player Comparison
  • 7.2 Market Share Analysis
  • 7.3 Investment Trends
  • 7.4 SWOT Analysis

• 8 Research Methodology

  • 8.1 Analysis Design
  • 8.2 Research Phases
  • 8.3 Study Timeline

• 9 Future Market Outlook

  • 9.1 Growth Forecast
  • 9.2 Market Evolution

• 10 Geographical Overview

  • 10.1 Aspirin Market by Region
  • 10.2 Europe - Market Analysis
    • 10.2.1 By Country
      • 10.2.1.1 UK
      • 10.2.1.2 France
      • 10.2.1.3 Germany
      • 10.2.1.4 Spain
      • 10.2.1.5 Italy
  • 10.3 Asia Pacific - Market Analysis
    • 10.3.1 By Country
      • 10.3.1.1 India
      • 10.3.1.2 China
      • 10.3.1.3 Japan
      • 10.3.1.4 South Korea
  • 10.4 Latin America - Market Analysis
    • 10.4.1 By Country
      • 10.4.1.1 Brazil
      • 10.4.1.2 Argentina
      • 10.4.1.3 Mexico
  • 10.5 North America - Market Analysis
    • 10.5.1 By Country
      • 10.5.1.1 USA
      • 10.5.1.2 Canada
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa - Market Analysis
    • 10.6.1 By Country
      • 10.6.1.1 Middle East
      • 10.6.1.2 Africa

• 11 Global Economic Factors

  • 11.1 Inflation Impact
  • 11.2 Trade Policies

• 12 Technology & Innovation

  • 12.1 Emerging Technologies
  • 12.2 AI & Digital Trends
  • 12.3 Patent Research

• 13 Investment & Market Growth

  • 13.1 Funding Trends
  • 13.2 Future Market Projections

• 14 Market Overview & Key Insights

  • 14.1 Executive Summary
  • 14.2 Key Trends
  • 14.3 Market Challenges
  • 14.4 Regulatory Landscape

Segments Analyzed in the Report

The global Aspirin market is categorized based on

By Product Type

• Regular Aspirin
• Low-Dose Aspirin
• Enteric-Coated Aspirin
• Buffered Aspirin
• Effervescent Aspirin

By Application

• Pain Relief
• Fever Reduction
• Anti-inflammatory
• Cardiovascular Protection
• Cancer Prevention

By Distribution Channel

• Pharmacies
• Hospitals
• Online Retailers
• Drug Stores
• Others

By Ingredient Type

• Acetylsalicylic Acid
• Inactive Ingredients

By Region

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key Players

• Bayer AG
• GlaxoSmithKline plc
• Pfizer Inc.
• Sanofi S.A.
• Novartis AG
• Johnson & Johnson
• Roche Holding AG
• Merck & Co., Inc.
• Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
• AbbVie Inc.
• Amgen Inc.
• Hikma Pharmaceuticals PLC
• Endo International plc
• Alpharma LLC
• Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.